Παρακάτω δημοσιεύουμε το ενδιαφέρον άρθρο του συναδέλφου Ερμόλαου Ψαριανού, το οποίο έχει παρουσιαστεί στο 9ο Διεθνές Συνέδριο του International
Society for Universal Dialogue (ISUD) και του Olympic Center for Philosophy and
Culture με θέμα: «Democratic Culture: Historical Reflections and Modern Transformations»,
τον Ιούνιο του 2012 στην Αρχαία Ολυμπία. Επιπλέον έχει δημοσιευθεί στο Σκέψις
περιοδική έκδοση φιλοσοφίας και διεπιστημονικής έρευνας ΧΧΙΙ/i, Olympic and
Elian Dialogues, L.C. Bargeliotes, K. Wang, (σελ. 263 – 274).
Reclaiming democratic
culture by revisiting Dewey’s educational philosophy
Psarianos Ermolaos
Med, PhD Candidate
University of Macedonia
Introduction
Med, PhD Candidate
University of Macedonia
Introduction
John
Dewey, the great philosopher and educator signalled his philosophy of education
through the close association of democracy and education, thinking the
democracy as a lifestyle, not simply as a means of political governance.
Convinced that the mission of education in a democratic society is the
cultivation of the individual's capacity for continuous mental development, he
argued that the purpose of education lies in the educational process itself 1.
Dewey’s views on the indissoluble link between democracy and education emerge
at much more significant in times of crisis of values, because the social
institutions are unstable and do not favor the development of a democratic
climate. The democratic conception regarding education permeates the whole
philosophy of Dewey, who treats knowledge as a social good that helps as to
eliminate the democratic deficit.
The
purpose of this paper is to highlight the interactive
relationship between democracy and education in philosophy
of Dewey, as a remedy to the crisis of democratic
culture. Particularly, this paper presents Dewey’s philosophy as a middle theoretical approach between
the theoretical positions of Charles Taylor (as a representative
of communitarism) and John Rawls (as representative of
liberalism) for the interpretation of modern democratic
notion. In other words, this paper claims that Dewey’s philosophy transfers
the dualism invoked by Taylor’s and Rawls’ approaches
regarding the meaning of citizenship and democracy. Dewey’s
democracy composes both the communitarian and
the liberal models of democratic education.
- The meaning of democracy in Dewey’s philosophy.
John
Dewey developed his thoughts and concerns on the
issue of democratic education by his work on the
relationship between democracy and education, which
was fundamental to the further progressive
movement of education. Dewey's proposal for an education in
the service of democracy is this: the free communication
between people and the unimpeded exchange
of experience aimed at the convergence of different
social interests will be secured. “Regarded as an idea, democracy is not
an alternative to other principles of associated life. It is the idea of
community life itself “(Dewey, 1991: 148). Through free communication and
mutual experiences the flexible adjustment of the
institutions and the continuous progress of society will be
achieved. At this point it is necessary to mention
that Dewey contrasts the traditional form of
education with a more modern approach of the educational
process, which includes the experience as the pervasive
principle 2.
1. “The
educational process should be seen as a constant reconstruction within
experience [..] the process and the goal of education is the same thing”
(Dewey, 1916: 328-331).
The
contrast between the two forms of education is strongly emphasized by Dewey,
who concludes that there is a close and necessary link between education and
experience (Dewey, 1897, Kolb, 1984). Dewey supports the dual aspect, namely
the subjective and inter-subjective dimension of the reconstruction of
knowledge, highlighting the inherent and continuous interaction between man and
his experience with the social environment. According to him, human experience
considered as a special type of interaction with the environment in which the
one side defines and shapes the other one and simultaneously it is shaped by it,
opening up possibilities of new forms of coping with the situations and forming
of activities3. In formulating these positions, he
attempts to remove the division between the subject and the object, theory and
practice, rationalism and empiricism. It defines learning as a process which
extracts meaning from experience and argues that the reflection on experience
is a key element of the learning process. Dewey dealt extensively in his work
with the concept of reflection, which constitutes a concept with a broad
content. It is a part of thinking and learning, from which it must be
differentiated and separated. Generally, it occurs as a synonym for mental
processes of a high level and it is used for the activities (mental and
emotional) that a person is involved in, having as ulterior purpose to explore
the experiences and to be led to a new understanding and appreciation of the
phenomena (Mezirow, 1990). The methodological principle of learning by doing is
the essence of the educational thought of Dewey, highlighting the experience as
the dominant method of reality’s approach and knowledge of things. According to
Dewey (1957), experience transfers the principles connection and organization
of information or stuff within itself. For Dewey, the reflection is the
starting point for the action and it aims to help the person to get out of the
deadlock, resolving problematic situations. He says that reflection is
associated with the "evaluation of the justification of a person’s
beliefs", that is the process of rational examination of conclusions with
which our beliefs have been justified (Dewey, 1933, 1969).
The
liberal idea of Dewey regarding the ability of education to adjust and
improve the social relations leads to the concept of equal opportunities, the
provision, that is, to all students of equal access to cultural goods (with
potential parallel aid of the disadvantageous) so as everyone has the
possibility of obtaining the means for the realization of their own rational
plan of virtuous life (Dewey, 1916, 1938). Dewey’s philosophical thought can be
condensed and formulated in the following sentence: "A general application
of the methods of science, in every possible area of research is the only
adequate means to resolve the problems of an industrial democracy" (Hook,
1939). He believed that democracy is an activity that takes place through
learning, a process that anyone can learn and build upon through action, giving
particular emphasis on social rather than political dimension of democracy 4.
Dewey approached education as part of a larger project that included the
exploration of the nature of the experience, knowledge, society and morality.
Therefore, he offers us "the perfect bridge from the theories of knowledge
to the democratic theory, then with the theory of education» (Kelly, 1995).
2. The father figure of the
progressive education movement (Van Till, 1963), as described above, rejected
the traditional approach of learning and teaching and formulated a series of
new principles for a school open to the democratic society, «initiating a new
era in Pedagogy» (Röhrs, 1993).
3. “Experience
is primarily an active-passive affair; it is not primarily cognitive, but the
measure of the value of an experience lies in the perception of relationships
or continuities to which it leads up” (Dewey, 1916: 140).
4. This discussion also needs to be connected to the
meaning and the importance we attribute to the concept 'democracy', inevitably,
of course, in conjunction with political, ideological positions and attitudes.
A key feature was the concern for "social
intelligence". According to him, through the cultivation of human the
collective capacity to enlarge the freedom and creating a more desirable form
of social life begins to develop (Carr & Hartnett, 1996).
Democracy
as a way of life and not merely as a means of governance is based on the human
contact and communication of their experiences. This concept highlights the two
dominant components of a democratic way of life: the recognition of a layer of
common values and ideals and at the same time the emergence of flexible
communication forms between people who promote interaction (Alexander, 2004).
As a result, they experience jointly and reconstruct their experiences and
knowledge, setting common goals and perspectives as well as organizing their
action and confronting situations. A democracy of this type has the
characteristics of community life. It is open to constant adjustment in order
to satisfy new circumstances as they arise. The development of a deep
democratic consciousness is necessary for the formation of democratic
character. This development is not be reflected in the stereotyped acceptance
of democratic principles. On the contrary, it depends on the overall
accomplishment of objectives of the educational system.
Regarding
the link between democracy and education, Dewey also drew the huge importance
of freedom. Dewey emphasized the importance of intellectual freedom over just a
temporary physical freedom: “The only freedom that is of enduring importance is
freedom of intelligence, that is to say, freedom of observation and of judgment
exercised in behalf of purposes that are intrinsically worth while “(Dewey,
1938: 61). A prerequisite of education in a democratic society is the free
communication between people and the free exchange of views, information,
interests and experiences. On the other hand, the existence of democracy in a
society is directly dependent on the proper education of citizens and for this
reason the concern of the state for the popular education is imperative. Freedom
is neither something given to humans nor a static event. It is a mission, a
"becoming". For this reason, Horne states that the world of Dewey is
becoming, not it is. He has a measure of class, but not a theory about the
nature or the origin of this class (Horne, 1931).
Dewey
emphasized the changes that are continuously being conduced (progress of
democratic ideas, new scientific discoveries) which required a shift of people
on issues concerning education. In a democratic society, all citizens should
have equal opportunities for education and knowledge. He wanted the knowledge
direct and accessible to everyone and not elitism and intellectual
authoritarianism, which provides knowledge for the few. Students should have
the freedom to think and act. They exercised themselves to in freedom, which
can manage well, when in the future they will be the people who will administer
the state (Dewey, 1924, 1959). The new school should equip students with
interhuman values and the meaning of democracy, basic skills for their later
life. A democratic school environment means supplying students with life
experiences with which they will develop the democratic ideals of equality,
freedom and the community of people. People, who have been nurtured with the
universal and timeless valuesof personal liberty, dignity, kindness, mutual
understanding and dialogue, have a higher quality of experience. Richmond says
that "Dewey wanted firstly to humanize and personalize the learning
process and then it makes it democratic." According to this approach of
Dewey, Kilpatrick emphasizes that the respect for personality means to help
everyone to develop, on their own efforts, their best predispositions, to help
them especially to decide freely for the best purposes [...]. Such respect for
personality is the most sacred thing in human relationships. (Richmond, 1973,
Kilpatrick, 1951).
2. The deweyan conception of citizenship:
between Taylor and Rawls.
Starting
from a profound belief in democratic ideals, Dewey moves towards a democratic conception
of education, linking the concept of democracy with the concept of education,
so that one presupposes the other. Democracy requires education, since the
ulterior purpose of the educational process in a democratic society is the
formation of democratic citizenship. But education involves democracy in the
sense that the educational ideal must be in perfect harmony with the democratic
ideal (Dewey, 1916). In this way, he rejects the aristocratic - platonic ideal
of education, according to which only the few and the elite have the right to
learning, and submits the idea that everyone, without exception, can and should
have access to knowledge. For this reason, «the highest duty of a democratic
state is to provide all citizens with a general education entirely
representative of the fundamental social standards and ideals of democracy»
(Dewey, 2003: 315) 5.
The
philosophical thinking of Dewey transfers the liberal and communitarian
conception of Democracy. It is a middle theoretical way, beyond the dualism of
two diametrically opposing views about democracy. Liberal democracy is
characterized by diversity of identities in the sense that every individual has
the right to choose freely what, at their discretion, the virtuous life is.
This diversity is now not only a fundamental value in the western world but
also a permanent feature of the public culture of a liberal democracy (Tully,
1995, Rawls, 1993). Rawls understands the liberal democratic society as a
system of cooperation between citizens who have rights not on the basis of
philosophical, religious, moral or other comprehensive doctrines, but on the
basis of the principle of equal citizenship. The cooperation of citizens can be
achieved on the basis of a political conception of justice, which based on the
creation of successive consent. The conception above is translated into
commonly accepted political institutions; primarily it is feasible in the
Constitution. The political conception of justice requires the moral commitment
to institutions that are regarded as fair, through which contradictions can be
settled, political decisions can be made and democratic cooperation can be
possible (Rawls, 1993).
The
political culture which is described by Rawls as a condition of the theoretical
model of social justice already exists in American history as public democratic ethos, as it was analyzed
by Tocqueville (1863), for which Rawls himself says that it is compatible with
the political theory (Rawls, 2004). In these terms, the political culture of
Rawls is equivalent, according to Wellmer (2001) to a 'communitarian'
liberalism which is present not only in Tocqueville, but in a more radical
version, in Dewey. The difference is that the democratic ethos, described by
Tocqueville in the 19th century has been enriched in the 20th century with a
universalist understanding of rights, given that the American political culture
in the present circumstances - particularly from the 1970 and on- has been
adapted to the circumstances of multiculturalism, and along with Australia and
Canada are the most tolerant and pluralist democratic systems in the world
(Glazer, 1997, Kymlicka, 1995). Moreover, progressively the concept of cultural
pluralism has taken a specific position in the education of many Western
countries. According to Charles Taylor, this attitude reflects a new
development in western liberal notion of political identity, which recognizes
the uniqueness of individuality.
5. The above position ascribes both subjective and
inter-subjective elements to the concept of citizenship with in a collective
conceptual framework and it proposes a dialectical conception of democratic
education, a conception that includes both individualist and communitarian
elements (Gollnick, 1976).
Taylor
suggests a historical reflection and a philosophy of visual examination of the
issue of recognition of cultural particularity of all groups (religious,
feminist organizations, political and cultural minorities, etc.), which coexist
in political community within the framework of a democratic society which ought
to treat all its members as equal (Taylor, 1994, 1997). The understanding of
the importance and of the role of individual, collective and cultural identity
is a prerequisite to understand the diversity, particularly in modern
democratic states, which are formed by the impact of new forms of communication
and art which bring together nations, people and cultures helping to the
achievement of communication between cultures. According to Taylor , the lack of identification or false
identification is a form of oppression, which leads to entrapment and to a
distorted and impoverished way of being. The projection to the others of an
inferior image leads to oppression. The incorrect recognition is not only a
matter of formal respect, as it can have serious effects on its victims. This
is a real human need, essential to the individual and their perception of life.
Paying particular attention to the dialogical and not to the one-way character
of the formation of identity highlights the emergence of the issue of
recognition6.
The
communitarian model of Taylor’s democracy, influenced by Hegelian epistemology,
moves essentially moving into the conceptual framework of political nation,
which prefers a state neutral to the identities and committed to human rights.
Taylor highlights a political nation that promotes a cultural dominant ethnic
group, which will be the unifying element of the political community, but will
also protect the rights of all citizens. As a consequence a moral equivalence
between the dominant ethnic group and individual identities which are
differentiated with will be established because without this moral equivalence
respect for the rights of minority identities cannot exist. Such equivalence
is, of course, difficult to be accepted by the dominant nation, a fact that
relays the problem posed at the beginning, this of the institutional racism
that has been associated historically with the nation state (Taylor, 1983)7.
However,
the essence of political theory is clearly linked to the issue of
multiculturalism provided that any national, ethnic or religious group is based
on certain ethical doctrines. According to Rawls, everyone has an equal right
to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties which is compatible with
a similar shape of freedom for the others, with a regulatory priority of the
individual interests – rights, while the social and economic inequalities are
arranged so that they are reasonably expected to benefit everyone (Rawls,
1971). The modern liberal democracy is determined by the principle of social
justice, which operates as a regulatory factor in equality among citizens.
The
ancient claim "paideuesthe pros tas politias" (be educated so as to
take part in the public affairs) is a claim of modern times as well, with the
emergence of the modern nation-state
6. This could not be discussed earlier as it is discussed
today, because the fact that the concept of recognition is based on social
categories that were perceived by all as given. The transition from the value
to dignity resulted in the shift in the politics of universality, which yielded
an emphasis on equality of all citizens regarding dignity. Here, the basic
principle is that all are equal regarding their property to be citizens. Along
with the development of the modern conception of identity, the policy of
dispute is being created. Based on this, everyone is entitled to recognition
because of the uniqueness of their identity.
7. At this point, Rawls is
closer to Taylor, because he does not explicitly discuss the problem of
multiculturalism and does not distinguish between the nation-state and the
multicultural society, but instead he identifies the political community with a
unique (single) people who belongs to the same "society and culture»
(Kymlicka, 1995).
and
modern liberal democracy during the period of Enlightenment in the 18th century
and then in the 19th and 20th centuries. The newest "imagined"
democratic state 8 based on the principles of liberty, equality,
justice and brotherhood. Furthermore, the public education in the modern
liberal democratic state / nation needs to take responsibility for the forging
of national identity, for the formation of free and responsible citizens and
the political, economic and cultural construction of the modern nation-states
in general. Building a more democratic and more humane society, passes through
knowledge, information, acquisition of appropriate skills and "life
skills", the adoption of democratic values and awareness of any problems
that confronted the modern man confronts in democratic societies (Korsgaard et
al, 2001).
Therefore,
the key point of the establishment and consolidation of the representative
democracy - the institutional framework of the modern democratic state - is the
public education / literacy. The public but simultaneous democratic education
and the public democratic school in Dewey, is a sine qua non for the
democratization of liberal democracy. The democratic «community school» and
democratic learning environment are necessary to promote the
"socio-citizen mind» which in turn is a precondition for
individual freedom and development. As a consequence, Dewey tries
to bring the educational process to a new basis. He is radically opposed to the
traditional philosophy of education, based on prefabricated materials courses.
This, in his opinion persistence of ready knowledge of the past, does not seem
to offer something extra; it is not enough to solve the problems faced by the
education system (Dewey, 1916).
The concept of democracy in Dewey’s philosophy is of
critical importance, something which affected the views of Rawls and Taylor.
The stake of the Republic in times of crises is displayed more opportune than
ever, calling to heal the fragmentation and the shattering caused by the lack
of democratic values in the proper functioning of the social net. The
indissoluble link between democracy and education plays an important role in
multicultural societies which are characterized by a crisis of democratic
values and ideals. In today's difficult economic, social and political
crisis, Dewey’s philosophy appears as a demand of the times and as a response
to the successive crackings which the society and the education endure.
Kymlicka (2005) rightly points out that, the emergence
of democratic values is directly related to education and should be the primary
concern of any educational system, with the active participation of people in
the formal legislative functions of democracy. The democratic values are violated;
the education system appears lame, without the ability to respond to the
contemporary demands. Every day, the democratic culture is undermined, exacerbating
the social and educational inequalities. The educational philosophy of Dewey
creates a suitable framework for the promotion of democratization, in an
environment that respects democratic principles and promotes the pluralism of
the democratic spirit. Moreover, it is clear that democracy works in the social
relations in multiple ways. It is not only a process of electoral
representation, but it carries out social elements as well and components that
promote social welfare. It includes principles and values that found the
democratic way of life.
8. it was first who Benedict
Anderson coined the term “imagined communities” in a brilliant book. He defined
a nation as "an imagined political community - and imagined as both inherently
limited and sovereign". An imagined community is different from an
actual community because it is not (and cannot be) based on everyday
face-to-face interaction between its members (Anderson, 1991).
In each
case there must be constant redefinition under the spectrum of constant changes
of the present time.
3.
Conclusions
My main
conception of this paper is to present Dewey’s philosophy as a middle
theoretical approach between Rawl’s and Taylor models about democracy. Dewey
combines the models of universalism and recognition in order to give a special
meaning about democracy. I have examined that, by highlighting the three
components for deweyan concept of democracy: experience, education and freedom.
What we could conclude based on the above analysis is that the theoretical model
of Rawls, which corresponds to a liberal republicanism, which is more
applicable in multicultural societies of immigrants, like the United States and
Australia, while for the societies which have constructed a nation-state it is
more realistic to promote the model of Taylor, which is closer to the so-called
national republicanism, which implies a dominant ethnic group. In fact, both
models are based on common principles and values which can be traced both in
Rawls and Taylor, as well as in Dewey. Therefore, the characteristic which
either one or the other version of a modern democratic society must bear, is a
common democratic political culture that respects equally the different
identities and the rights of all, based on a constitution that will result from
the participation in the democratic dialogue. Dewey’s philosophy puts forward
the interactive relationship between the individual and the society,
distinguishing the democratic education as a process that comprises subjective
and inter-subjective elements.
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